Rape - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Rape, also referred to as sexual assault, is an assault by a person involving ... Rape is generally considered a serious sex crime, as well as a civil assault. ...
en.wikipedia.org

Rape, Abuse, and Incest National Network (RAINN)
Runs a national sexual assault hotline, and programs for the prevention of rape, and to help victims and send rapists to jail.
www.rainn.org

Rape
Rape is forced, unwanted sexual intercourse. Rape is about power, not sex. ... Rape, sometimes also called sexual assault, can happen to both men and women of ...
kidshealth.org

Rape - MedlinePlus
Offers overview, information on coping after being raped, self-defense information, research, date rape information, links to organizations, and glossaries.
www.nlm.nih.gov

Date Rape
Most people who have been raped knew the person who violated them. This article explains what date rape is, how to protect yourself, and what to do if you've been raped.
kidshealth.org

rape definition | Dictionary.com
Definition of rape at Dictionary.com with free audio pronunciation. ... to commit rape. Origin: ... improper treatment; violation: a rape of justice. tr.v. ...
dictionary.reference.com

Rape Crisis Center
The Rape Crisis Center for children and adults provides comprehensive services ... THE RAPE CRISIS CENTER. David Coy Building. 7500 US Hwy 90 West. Building 2, ...
www.rapecrisis.com

List of Rape Myths
Rape myths are beliefs about sexual assault that wrought with problems. ... The best way to approach rape myths are to confront them honestly and frankly. ...
www.d.umn.edu

ABC News: Victim: Gang-Rape Cover-Up by U.S., Halliburton/KBR
... Gang-Rape Cover-Up ... KBR Told Victim She Could Lose Her Job If She Sought Help After ... and anally," but that the rape kit disappeared after it was ...
abcnews.go.com

Rape | LIVESTRONG.COM
Rape. ... The rape of women and children seems to becoming more and more common, even ... Whenever a person is forced to have sex with someone, a rape has occurred. ...
www.livestrong.com

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Rape is a form of assault where one individual forces another to have sexual intercourse against that person’s will (philosophy). Most experts believe the primary cause of rape is an aggressive desire to dominate the victim rather than an attempt to achieve sexual fulfillment. DiCanio, Margaret. (1993). The encyclopedia of violence: origins, attitudes, consequences. New York: Facts on File They consider rape an act of violence rather than principally a sexual encounter.

Rape is generally considered one of the most serious sex crimes and can be very difficult to prosecute. Sexual violence can also be a war crime under international law. Consent may be absent due to duress arising from the use, or threat, of overwhelming force or violence, or because the subject is incapacitated in some way such as intoxication or being underage. In some cases coercion might also be used to negate consent.

There is no universally accepted distinction between rape and other forms of assault involving one or both participant's sexual organs. Some criminal codes explicitly consider all kinds of forced sexual activity to be rape, whereas in others only acts involving penis penetration of the vagina. Many restrict rape to instances where a woman is forced by a man. In recent years some women have been convicted of raping men; this is classed as either rape or sexual assault. In some jurisdictions rape may also be committed by assailants using objects, rather than their own body parts, against the sexual organs of their target.. The Bulgarians martyresses. 1877 Atrocities of bashibazouks in BulgariaThe rape of women by men is the most frequent form of the assault, with an estimated over 90%-91% of rape victims being femalehttp://www2.ucsc.edu/rape-prevention/statistics.htmlhttp://www.rainn.org/statistics/victims-of-sexual-assault.html?PHPSESSID=f92204dfc5eb4a0f390de6d9ebbd715a. Male-male rape is less common, with less than 9%-10% of victims being male, primarily in correctional facilitieshttp://www.rainn.org/statistics/victims-of-sexual-assault.html?PHPSESSID=f92204dfc5eb4a0f390de6d9ebbd715a. An estimated 99% of rape offenders are male. http://www2.ucsc.edu/rape-prevention/statistics.html Most female assailants convicted of rape are convicted of statutory rape. It is thought that female rapists who rape other women are almost never caught or convictedhttp://www.sfwar.org/node/view/33 and research on female rapists is rare.http://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/text/pblct/sexoffender/female/toc_e.shtml

In almost every legal jurisdiction children are considered unable to consent to sex with adults and thus the child sexual abuse of children is considered to be a form of rape.

History of rape , a 1582 sculpture by Giambologna.

The word rape (word) originates from the Latin verb wikt:rapere: to seize or take by force. The word rape (word) had no sexual connotation and is still used generically in English. The history of rape, and the alterations of its meaning, is quite complex. The Latin term for the crime of rape is vim (assault). Raptus was a general term used to refer to abduction, elopement, or rape in its modern meaning. Confusion over the term led ecclesial commentators on the law to differentiate the terms into raptus seductionis (elopement without parental consent) and raptus violentiae (ravishment) during Late Antiquity. Both forms of raptus had a civil penalty and possible excommunication for the family and village receiving the abducted woman, although raptus violentiae also incurred punishments of mutilation or death.Basil of Caesarea, Letters circa 374 AD

Throughout parts of ancient history, the crime of rape was viewed less as a variety of assault on a female's autonomy, but rather a serious property crime against the man to whom she "belonged." This was especially true in the case of betrothed virgins, as the loss of chastity was perceived as severely depreciating her value to her husband. The law, in such cases, would void the betrothal and demand financial compensation from the rapist, payable to the woman's household, whose "goods" were "damaged." Hammurabi's Code #156 & Under ancient Jewish law the rapist might be married to the woman instead of receiving the civil penalty. This was especially prevalent in laws where the crime of rape did not include, as a necessary part, that it be against the woman's will, thus dividing the crime in the current meaning of rape and a means for a man and woman to force their families to permit marriage. Deuteronomy 22:28-29

From the classical antiquity of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome into the Colonial period, rape along with arson, treason and murder was a capital offense. "Those committing rape were subject to a wide range of capital punishments that were seemingly brutal, frequently bloody, and at times spectacular." In the 12th century, kinsmen of the victim were given the option of executing the punishment themselves. "In England in the early fourteenth century, a victim of rape might be expected to gouge out the eyes and/or sever the offender's testicles herself."The Medieval Blood Sanction and the Divine Beneficene of Pain: 1100 - 1450, Trisha Olson, Journal of Law and Religion, 22 JLREL 63 (2006)

The English common law defined rape as "the carnal knowledge of a woman forcibly and against her will."Rape - Overview; Act and Mental State, Wayne R. LaFave Professor of Law, University of Illinois, "Substantive Criminal Law" 752-756 (3d ed. 2000) The common law defined carnal knowledge as the penetration of the female sex organ by the male sex organ (it covered all other acts under the crime of sodomy). The crime of rape was unique in the respect that it focused on the victim's state of mind and actions in addition to that of the defendant. The victim was required to prove a continued state of physical resistance, and consent was conclusively presumed when a man had intercourse with his wife. "One of the most oft-quoted passages in our jurisprudence" on the subject of rape is by Lord Chief Justice Sir Matthew Hale from the 17th century, "rape...is an accusation easily to be made and hard to be proved, and harder to be defended by the party accused, tho never so innocent."Ibid Lord Hale is also the origin of the remark, "In a rape case it is the victim, not the defendant, who is on trial." This propensity to "blame the victim" endured well into the 20th century and modern judicial reforms have sought to eliminate this perception. Additionally, gender neutral laws have combated the older perception that rape never occurs to men,Ibid' while other laws have eliminated the term altogether.see for example, Michigan Statutes for the first degree felony, section 520b, "(1) A person is guilty of criminal sexual conduct in the first degree if he or she engages in sexual penetration of another person."

Many additional developments in law with regard to rape took place during the twentieth century. These included landmark decisions by the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda that defined rape as an institutionalized weapon of war and a crime of genocide.

The modern criminal justice system is widely known for being unfair to sexual assault victims. (Macdonalds, 2001) Both sexist stereotypes and common law combined to make rape a "criminal proceeding on which the victim and her behavior were tried rather than the defendant". (Howard & Francis, 2000)Since the 1970s many changes have occurred in the perception of sexual assault due in large part to the feminist movement and its public characterization of rape as a crime of power and control rather than purely of sex. Rape and Prosecution In some countries the women's liberation movement of the 1970s created the first rape crisis centers. This movement was led by the National Organization for Women (NOW) (). One of the first two rape crisis centers, the D.C. Rape Crisis Center, opened in 1972. It was created to promote sensitivity and understanding of rape and its effects on the victim. In 1960 law enforcement cited false reporting rates at 20%. By 1973 the statistics had dropped to 15%. After 1973 the New York city police department used female officers to investigate sexual assault cases and the rate dropped to 2% according to the FBI. (DiCanio, 1993). An important part of the history of rape is the foundation of RAINN in 1994 by Tori Amos and Scott Berkowitz. RAINN is central to the modern history of the rape crisis movement as it founded the national sexual assault hotline and provides statistics and information to the mass media.

Types of rape#Rape of males by males has historically been shrouded in secrecy due to the stigma men associate with being raped by other men. Fewer than one in ten male-male rapes are reported, according to one expert. As a group, male rape victims reported a lack of services and support, and legal systems are often ill equipped to deal with this type of crime.

Most cultures worldwide have not considered the possibility that women can commit rape against men and women. Most legal codes on rape do not legislate for this as a crime, as rape is generally defined to include the act of penetration on behalf of the rapist. As of 2007, in South Africa a gang of women has reportedly been raping young men. However, the relevance of this issue has been overshadowed by more prominent instantiations of rape, and it is widely regarded, particularly by feminists and academics interested in feminist issues and sexual matters of intellectual interest, that until the more prominent issues of rape are addressed first, not much will come of the former, less common instances of rape, as addressed here.

Rape, in the course of war, also dates back to antiquity, ancient enough to have been mentioned in the Bible. The Ancient Greece, Persian Empire and Ancient Rome troops would routinely rape women and boys in the conquered towns.

As many as 80,000 women were raped by the Japanese soldiers during the six weeksof the Nanking Massacre. Chinese city remembers Japanese 'Rape of Nanjing' Japanese war crimes#Comfort women is a euphemism for up to 200,000 women, who were forced into prostitution in Empire of Japan military brothels during World War II. Comfort Women Were 'Raped': U.S. Ambassador to Japan At the end of World War II, Red Army atrocities#Rapes and pacifications soldiers raped at least 2,000,000 German women and girls. 'They raped every German female from eight to 80' Red Army troops raped even Russian women as they freed them from camps French Moroccan troops known as Goumiers, committed rapes and other war crimes after the Battle of Monte Cassino. (see Marocchinate). Italian women win cash for wartime rapes

An estimated 200,000 women were raped during the Bangladesh Liberation War#Atrocities by Pakistani army How did rape become a weapon of war? and at least 20,000 Bosnian Muslim women were raped by Serb forces during the Bosnian War. Bosnian kids born of war rape asking questions

The word tournante is a French adjective meaning "turning". It is used as a slang term to mean a gang rape. According to the testimony of numerous victims, young Islam in France women who stray from traditional conduct in the immigrant neighborhoods such as behaving and dressing like a westerner, or wanting to live as Europeans or refusing to wear Islam and clothing have been considered by some to be "fair game" for tournantes. Sexism in the Cités Girls terrorized in France's macho ghettos As Samira Bellil said in a CNN Interview, there was a trial in Lille where a 13- year-old girl was gang raped by 80 men. Muslim Women Rebel In France In some cases the unlucky victim is killed, as in the case of Sohanne Benziane, a young 17-year-old Muslim girl burned alive in a basement after being brutally gang-raped in a tournante. Acting on The Outrage

Definitions of rape In most jurisdictions the crime of rape is defined to occur when sexual intercourse takes place (or is attempted) without valid consent of one of the parties involved. It is frequently defined as penetration of the anus or the vagina by a penis.In some jurisdictions the penetration need not be by penis but can be by other body parts (e.g. one or more fingers, i.e. Fingering (sexual act)) or by objects (e.g. a bottle), or may involve the forcing of a vagina or anus onto a penis by a female assailant.

Other jurisdictions expand the definition of rape to include other acts committed using the sexual organs of one or both of the parties, such as oral sex and masturbation, for example, again enacted without valid consent.

The lack of valid consent does not necessarily mean that the victim explicitly refused to give consent. Generally, consent is considered invalid if it is obtained from someone who is:

• Under any kind of duress (force, violence, blackmail, etc.)
• Judgmentally impaired or incapacitated by alcohol or drugs (legal or otherwise)
• Mentally impaired whether by illness or developmental disability
• Below the age of consent defined in that jurisdiction

Statutory rape refers to a sexual act that is considered rape by the law regardless of whether it was coercive or informed consent. Such laws are common and exist in order to prevent adults from having sex with minors who are deemed legally unable to give effective informed consent.

Sexual activity involving a person below the age of consent is often known as statutory rape although some jurisdictions prefer terms such as "unlawful sexual intercourse" to avoid the forcible connotation of the word.

The Brazilian Penal Code defines rape as unconsensual sexual intercourse. Therefore, unlike most of Europe and the Americas, male rape, anal sex, and oral sex are not considered to be rape crimes. Instead, such an act is a "violent attempt against someone's modesty" ("Atentado violento ao pudor"). The penalty, however, is the same.

The definition used by the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda in its landmark 1998 judgment was "a physical invasion of a sexual nature committed on a person under circumstances which are coercive." Fourth Annual Report of ICTR to the General Assembly (1999) March 23, 2007

In certain jurisdictions, it is not possible to be guilty of the rape of a spouse, either on the basis of "implied consent" or (in the case of former British colonies) because of a statutory requirement that the intercourse must have been "unlawful" (which is legal nomenclature for outside of wedlock).See for example in the British Virgin Islands under the Criminal Code, 1997 However, in many of those jurisdictions it is still possible to bring prosecutions for what is effectively rape by characterizing it as an assault.Under the English common law, marriage has not been a defense to rape since 1991, see R v. R 1 A.C. 599.

Types of rape There are several types of rape, generally categorized by reference to the situation in which it occurs, the sex or characteristics of the victim, and/or the sex or characteristics of the perpetrator. Different types of rape include but are not limited to: date rape, gang rape, marital rape, prison rape, acquaintance rape, and wartime rape. For more information on specific types of rape, see UCSB's SexInfo. It is important to note that almost all rape research and reporting to date has been limited to male-female forms of rape. Research on male-male and female-male is beginning to be done. However, almost no research has been done on female-female rape. Such widespread research biases and social double standards can cause systemic biases in how rape is reported and acknowledged. Women can be charged with rape, although it is usually in situations involving underage males. english.pravda.ru However, there have been cases where women have raped adult men. english.pravda.ru

Rape statistics A United Nations report compiled from government sources showed that more than 250,000 cases of rape or attempted rape were recorded by police annually. The reported data covered 65 countries. The Eighth United Nations Survey on Crime Trends and the Operations of Criminal Justice Systems (2001 - 2002) - Table 02.08 Total recorded rapes

Many reports suggest that rape statistics are not reliable because some kinds of rape are excluded from official reports altogether, (The FBI's definition for example excludes all rapes except forcible rapes of adult females by males), because a significant number of rapes go unreported even when they are included as reportable rapes, and also because a significant number of rapes reported to the police cannot be verified and possibly did not occur.Dick Haws, "The Elusive Numbers on False Rape," Columbian Journalism Review (November/December 1997).

In addition, rape by women is a barely understood phenomenon that is widely denied in most societies and one that usually causes surprise, shock, or utter revulsion.Myriam S. Denov, Perspectives on Female Sex Offending: A Culture of Denial (Ashgate Publishing 2004) - ISBN.

In the United States, according to the National Crime Victimization Survey, the adjusted per-capita victimization rate of rape has declined from about 2.4 per 1000 people (age 12 and above) in 1980 to about 0.4 per 1000 people, a decline of about 85%. Anthony D'Amato. Porn Up, Rape Down. Northwestern Public Law Research Paper No. But other government surveys, such as the Sexual Victimization of College Women study, critique the NCVS on the basis it includes only those acts perceived as crimes by the victim, and report a higher victimization rate. Bonnie S. Fisher, Francis T. Cullen, Michael G. Turner. Sexual Victimization of College Women

While researchers and prosecutors do not agree on the percentage of false allegations, one study has shown that approximately 40% to 50% of charges are recanted by the victim. This number does not include unresolved allegations held “in limbo” where evidence is too weak to try the case even under shield laws, relaxed rules, and comparatively weak evidential standards applied to rape cases. Many times this is cited as being "false" reports. Recanting can have many causes.

Some statistics:

• According to United States Department of Justice document Criminal Victimization in the United States, in the United States in 2005, 37,460 white females were sexually assaulted or raped by a black man, while between zero and ten black females were sexually assaulted or raped by a white man. There were overall 111,590 white victims of rape/sexual assault in 2005. In those 111,590 cases the offender was White in 44.5 percent of the cases and Black in 33.6 percent of the cases. United States Department of Justice document

The belief that false allegations of rape are a problem is common, another factor that makes victims feel like they are put on trial for reporting:

• According to a report of the Defense Department Inspector General released in 2005, approximately 73% of women and 72% of men at the military service academies believe that false accusations of sexual assault are a problem.http://www.cmrlink.org/social.asp?DocID=276

From 2000-2005, 59% of rapes were not reported to law enforcementhttp://www.rainn.org/statistics/. One factor relating to this is the myth that rapists are strangers hiding in bushes. In reality 38% of victims were raped by a friend or acquaintance, 28% by "an intimate" and 7% by another relative, and 26% were committed by a stranger to the victim. About four out of ten sexual assaults take place at the victim's own home. Two in ten take place in the home of a friend, neighbor or relative. One in ten take place outside, away from home.

Even when rapes are reported to the police, the chance of a successful conviction is very small:

• If the rape is reported to police, there is a 50.8% chance that an arrest will be made.
• If an arrest is made, there is an 80% chance of prosecution.
• If there is a prosecution, there is a 58% chance of a felony conviction.
• If there is a felony conviction, there is a 69% chance the convict will spend time in jail.
• So, even in the 39% of attacks that are reported to police, there is only a 16.3% chance the rapist will end up in prison.
• Factoring in unreported rapes, about 6% of rapes—1 out of 16—will result in jail time for the rapist.

More than 67,000 cases of rape and sexual assaults against children were reported in 2000 in South Africa. Child welfare groups believe that the number of unreported incidents could be up to 10 times that number. A belief common to South Africa holds that sexual intercourse with a virgin will cure a man of HIV or Aids. South Africa has the highest number of HIV-positive citizens in the world. According to official figures, one in eight South Africans are infected with the virus. Edith Kriel, a social worker who helps child victims in the Eastern Cape, said: “Child abusers are often relatives of their victims - even their fathers and providers.” South African men rape babies as 'cure' for Aids

According to University of Durban-Westville anthropology lecturer and researcher Suzanne Leclerc-Madlala, the myth that sex with a virgin is a cure for AIDS is not confined to South Africa. “Fellow AIDS researchers in Zambia, Zimbabwe and Nigeria have told me that the myth also exists in these countries and that it is being blamed for the high rate of sexual abuse against young children.” Child rape: A taboo within the AIDS taboo

Effect of rape After being raped it is common for the victim to experience intense, and sometimes unpredictable, emotions, and they may find it hard to deal with their memories of the event. Victims can be severely Psychological trauma by the assault and may have difficulty functioning as well as they had been used to prior to the assault, with disruption of concentration, sleeping patterns and eating habits, for example. They may feel jumpy or be on edge. In the month(s) immediately following the assault these problems may be severe and very upsetting and may prevent the victim from revealing their ordeal to friends or family, or seeking police or medical assistance. This may result in Acute Stress Disorder. Symptoms of this are:

• feeling numb and detached, like being in a daze or a dream, or feeling that the world is strange and unreal
• difficulty remembering important parts of the assault
• reliving the assault through repeated thoughts, memories, or nightmares
• avoidance of things — places, thoughts, feelings — that remind the victim of the assault
• anxiety or increased arousal (difficulty sleeping, concentrating, etc.)
• avoidance of social life or place of rape

In 1972, Ann Wolbert Burgess and Lynda Lytle Holstrom embarked on a study of the psychological effects of rape. They interviewed and counseled rape victims at the emergency room of Boston City Hospital and observed a pattern of reactions which they named Rape Trauma Syndrome.Burgess A., & Holmstrom L. (1974). Rape Trauma Syndrome. American Journal of Psychiatry.. They defined this as having two components which they called the Acute and Reorganization phases.

During the Acute Phase the survivor may experience shock and disbelief, or feel frozen, and may attempt to disconnect themselves from "the person who was raped". They may feel humiliated, confused, dirty, ashamed, or at fault for the assault, particularly if the assailant was an acquaintance. Extreme nightmares, heightened anxiety, frequent flashbacks, and a strong attempt to disconnect from one's emotions are common, as is denial - trying to convince oneself that the assault did not actually occur. If raped by an acquaintance the victim may try to protect the perpetrator.

Victims may respond to the rape in either an expressive or a controlled way. The expressive way involves obvious outward effects and emotions such as crying, shaking, rage, tenseness, ironic and uncomfortable laughter (part of their denial), and restlessness. The controlled way occurs when the victim appears to be quite calm and rational about the situation, even if facing severe internal turmoil. There is no single response to rape; every individual deals with their intensely traumatic emotions differently.

After the acute phase, the Reorganization Phase begins and the survivor attempts to recreate the world that they once knew. This stage may last for months or even years following the assault and despite their best efforts this phase is often riddled with feelings of guilt, shame, fear, and anxiety. Emotions such as anger, anxiety, denial, and loss (of security) surface. Development of an inability to trust is a frequent consequence of sexual assault. This loss of the fundamental need for security can wreak havoc on the survivor’s life, causing them to feel powerless and not in control of their body. They may feel unsafe, which can cause a heightened state of anxiety as well as difficulty with intimate relationships. Victims may attempt to return to normal social interaction (i.e. go out to social engagements) and find themselves unable to do so and their attempts to re-establish themselves in Interpersonal relationship may be hindered by a lack of trust.

Survivors often isolate themselves from their support network either physically or emotionally. The survivor may feel disconnected from peers as a result of the perceived personal experience. The shattering of trust can adversely affect intimate relationships, as survivors may have a heightened suspicion of others' motives and feelings.

Another area of research referred to as "second victimization," has to do with the caustic and interrogatory way the police and medical staff sometimes treats people who allege rape or sexual assault.

Sexual assault can affect an individual forever, changing them into someone living in a constant state of turmoil. In extreme cases the outcome may be suicide.http://www.giftfromwithin.org/html/journey.html

Victim blame "Victim blaming" is holding the victim of a crime to be in whole or in part responsible for what has happened to them. In the context of rape, this concept refers to the Just World Theory and popular attitudes that certain victim behaviours (such as flirting, or wearing sexually-provocative clothing) may encourage rape.Pauwels, B. (2002). Blaming the victim of rape: The culpable control model perspective. Dissertation-Abstracts-International:-Section-B:-The-Sciences-and-Engineering, 63(5-B),. In extreme cases, victims are said to have "asked for it", simply by not behaving demurely. In most Western countries, the defense of provocation is not accepted as a mitigation for rape. Abrahms, D., Viky, G., Masser, B., & Gerd, B. (2003). Perceptions of stranger and acquaintance rape: The role of benevolent and hostile sexism in victim blame and rape proclivity. Journal-of-Personality-and-Social-Psychology, 84(1), 111-125., A global survey of attitudes toward sexual violence by the Global Forum for Health Research shows that victim-blaming concepts are at least partially accepted in many countries. In some countries, victim-blaming is more common, and women who have been raped are sometimes deemed to have behaved improperly. Often, these are countries where there is a significant social divide between the freedoms and status afforded to men and women.http://www.globalforumhealth.org/filesupld/vaw/attitudes.html Evolutionary psychologists regard blaming the victims as an effect of evolutionary pressure on men to want to monopoize their access to their women.Margo Wilson and Martin Daly: The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Chattel, in Jerome H. Barkow et al, The Adapted Mind, Oxford University Press, 1992, page 305.

Sociobiological perspectives Some argue that rape, as a reproduction strategy, is encountered in many instances in the animal kingdom (i.e: ducks, geese, and certain dolphin species).Gowaty, P.A. & Buschhaus, N., "Functions of aggressive and forced copulations in birds: female resistance and the CODE hypothesis," American Zoologist (1997).Gowaty, P.A. & Buschhaus, N., supra. It is difficult to determine what constitutes rape among animals, as the lack of informed consent defines rape among humans. See also Non-human animal sexuality.

Some sociobiology argue that our ability to understand rape, and thereby prevent it, is severely compromised because its basis in human evolution has been ignored.Thornhill, R., & Palmer, C.T., A Natural History of Rape: Biological Bases of Sexual Coercion (MIT Press, 2001). Some studies indicate that it is an evolutionary strategy for certain males who lack the ability to persuade the female by non-violent means to pass on their genes.Thornhill, R., & Thornhill, N.W., "Human rape: an evolutionary analysis," Ethology and Sociobiology (1983).

American social critic Camille Paglia, and some sociobiologists, have argued that the victim-blaming intuition may have a non-psychological component in some cases. Some sociobiological models suggest that it may be genetics-ingrained for certain men and women to allow themselves to be more vulnerable to rape, and that this may be a biological feature of members of the species.Paglia, C., Sexual Personae: Art and Decadence From Nefertiti to Emily Dickinson (Yale University Press, 1990).

Loss of control and privacy Rape has been regarded as "a crime of violence and control" since the 1970s. Psychological analysis literature identifies control as a key component in most definitions of privacy:

• "Privacy is not the absence of other people from one's presence, but the control over the contact one has with them." (Pedersen, D. 1997).
• "Selective control of access to the self." (Margulis, 2003)

Control is important in providing:

• what is needed need for normal psychological functioning;
• stable interpersonal relationships; and
• personal development. (Pedersen, D. 1997)

Violation of privacy or "control" comes in many forms, with sexual assault and the resulting psychological traumas being one of the most explicit forms. Many victims of sexual assault suffer from eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia, which also center around control issues. Therefore, some argue that it makes more sense to look at the issue of sexual assault as an invasion of privacy (Mclean, D. 1995):

The more comfortable a person is with talking about invasion of privacy and in insisting that he or she has privacy that deserves respect, the clearer that person’s understanding of rape will be…

Approaching rape through the concept of privacy helps bypass certain social stigmas.

The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Kansas v. Hendricks that a predatory sex offender can be civilly committed upon release from prison.

See also

• Rape (word)
• Types of rape
• Custodial rape
• Prison rape
• Serial rape
• Spousal rape
• Statutory rape
• Systematic rape
• Date rape
• Causes of rape
• Comfort women
• Effects of rape and aftermath
• Incest
• Laws about rape
• Marocchinate
• Rape by sex
• Rape crisis center
• Rape culture
• Rape fantasy
• Rape shield law
• Sexual assault
• Sociobiological theories of rape
• Trafficking of women

Notes Further reading Academic and reference books Reference books

• Smith, M. D. (2004). Encyclopedia of Rape. USA: Greenwood Press.
• Macdonals, John (1993). World Book Encyclopedia. United States of America: World Book Inc.
• Kahn, Ada. (1992). The A-Z of women's sexuality : a concise encyclopedia. Alameda, Calif.: Hunter House.
• The Columbia encyclopedia. Sixth edition,.
• Leonard, Arthur S. (1993). Sexuality and the law : an encyclopedia of major legal cases. New York : Garland Pub
• Kazdin, Alan E. (2000). Encyclopedia of psychology. Washington, D.C. : American Psychological Association ; Oxford ; New York : Oxford University Press
• Sedney, Mary Anne, "rape (crime)." Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. Scholastic Library Publishing, 2006http://gme.grolier.com
• Kittleson, M., Harper, J., & Hilgenkamp, K. (2005). The Truth About Rape. USA: Facts on File
• Medical Foundation for the Care of Victims of Torture (2004) Rape as a Method of Torture Edited by Dr Michael Peel

Secondary victimization and victim blame

• Lamb, Sharon, The Trouble with Blame: Victims, Perpetrators and Responsibility, Harvard Univ Press, 1999.
• Madigan, L. and Gamble, N. (1991). The Second Rape: Society's Continued Betrayal of the Victim. New York: Lexington Books.
• Murray JD, Spadafore JA, McIntosh WD. (2005) Belief in a just world and social perception: evidence for automatic activation. J Soc Psychol. Feb;145(1):35-47.
• Frese, B., Moya, M., & Megius, J. L. (2004). Social Perception of Rape: How Rape Myth Acceptance Modulates the Influence of Situational Factors. Journal-of-Interpersonal-Violence, 19(2), 143-161.
• Pauwels, B. (2002). Blaming the victim of rape: The culpable control model perspective. Dissertation-Abstracts-International:-Section-B:-The-Sciences-and-Engineering, 63(5-B)
• Blumberg, M. & Lester, D. (1991). High school and college students' attitudes toward rape. Adolescence, 26(103), 727-729.
• Shaver (2002). Attribution of rape blame as a function of victim gender and sexuality, and perceived similarity to the victim. Journal of Homosexuality, 43(2)
• Anderson, K. J. & Accomando, C. (1999). Madcap Misogyny and Romanticized Victim-Blaming: Discourses of Stalking in There's Something About Mary. Women & Language, 1, 24-28.
• The effect of participant sex, victim dress, and traditional attitudes on causal judgments for marital rape victims. (Author Abstract). Mark A. Whatley. Journal of Family Violence 20.3 (June 2005): p191(10).
• Kay, Aaron C., Jost, John T. & Young, Sean (2005) Victim Derogation and Victim Enhancement as Alternate Routes to System Justification. Psychological Science 16 (3), 240-246.

History of Rape

• Dejanikus, T. (1981). Rape Crisis Centers: Ten Years After. Off Our Backs, Washington: 14 (8) p. 17.
• DiCanio, M. (1993). The encyclopedia of violence : origins, attitudes, consequences. New York : Facts on File
• Howard, A. & Kavenik Francis (2000). Handbook of American Women's History. CA: Sage Publications Inc.
• Macdonalds, John (2001). World Book Encyclopedia. United States of America: World Book Inc.
• Pride, A. (1981) To respectability and back: A ten year view of the anti-rape movement. Fight Back! (pp. 114-118).
• Largen, M. (1981). "Grassroots Centers and National Task Forces: A History of the Anti-Rape Movement," Aegis: A Magazine on Ending Violence Against Women, Autumn.
• Geis, G. (2007). Rape. Encyclopedia Americana. Retrieved May 3, 2007, from Grolier Online http://ea.grolier.com/cgi-bin/article?assetid=0328610-00

Self blame

• Tangney, June Price and Dearing, Ronda L., Shame and Guilt, The Guilford Press, 2002
• Matsushita-Arao, Yoshiko. (1997). Self-blame and depression among forcible rape survivors. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. 57(9-B). pp. 5925.
• Branscombe, Nyla R.; Wohl, Michael J. A.; Owen, Susan; Allison, Julie A.; N'gbala, Ahogni. (2003). Counterfactual Thinking, Blame Assignment, and Well-Being in Rape Victims. Basic & Applied Social Psychology, 25 (4). p265, 9p.
• Frazier, Patricia A.; Mortensen, Heather; Steward, Jason. (2005). Coping Strategies as Mediators of the Relations Among Perceived Control and Distress in Sexual Assault Survivors. Journal of Counseling Psychology, Jul2005, Vol. 52 Issue 3, p267-278

Causes of multiple victimization

• Follette et al., (1996). Cumulative trauma: the impact of child sexual abuse, adult sexual assault, and spouse abuse. J Trauma Stress.9(1):25-35.
• Sarkar, N. N.; Sarkar, Rina, (2005). Sexual Assault on a Woman: Its Impact on Her Life and Living in Society. Sexual & Relationship Therapy. 20 (4), 407-419
• Parillo, K., Robert C. Freeman, & Paul Young. (2003) Association Between Child Sexual Abuse and Sexual Revictimization in Adulthood Among Women Sex Partners of Injection Drug Users. Violence and Victims. 18(4): 473-484.
• Shields, N. & Hanneke, C. (1988). Multiple Sexual Victimization: The Case of Incest and Marital Rape. In G. Hotaling, D. Finkelhor, J. Kirkpatrick, & M. Strauss (Eds), Family abuse and its consequences: New directions in research. (pp. 255-269). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
• Sorenson SB, Siegel JM, Golding JM, Stein JA. (1991). Repeated sexual victimization. Violence Vict., 6(4): 299-308.

Male victims

• Dorais, Michel, Don't Tell: The Sexual Abuse of Boys, McGill-Queen Univ Press, 2002.
• Mezey, Gillian, and King, Michael, Male Victims of Sexual Assault, Oxford, 2000.
• Morgan, Luke "Hollyoaks : Luke's Secret Diary" by kaddy benyon (2002)

Theories

• Anderson, Peter and Struckman-Johnson Cindy, Sexually Aggressive Women: Current Perspectives and Controversies, Guilford, 1998.
• Harris, Grant, et al, The Causes of Rape: Understanding Individual Differences in Male Propensity for Sexual Aggression, American Psychological Association, 2005.
• "Psychosexual Disorders." Section 15, Chapter 192 in The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy , edited by Mark H. Beers, MD, and Robert Berkow, MD. Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck Research Laboratories, 2002.
• Susan Brownmiller: Against Our Will : Men, Women, and Rape, Ballantine Books, 1975.
• Gavey, Nicola, Just Sex: The Cultural Scaffolding of Rape, Routledge, 2005.
• Scruton, Roger, Sexual Desire: A Moral Philoshopy of the Erotic, Free, 1986.
• Ellis, Lee, Theories of Rape: Inquiries Into the Causes of Rape, Hemisphere, 1989.
• McDonald, John, Rape: Controversial Issues: Criminal Profiles, Date Rape, False Reports, and False Memories, Charles C Thomas, 1995.
• Cothran, Helen, Sexual Violence: Opposing Viewpoints, Thompson Gale, 2003.
• Holmes, Ronald and Steven, Current Perspectives on Sex Crimes, Sage, 2002.
• Emilie Buchwald, Pamela Fletcher, Martha Roth (ed.), Transforming a Rape Culture, Milkweed Editions, 2005.
• Kanin, Eugene J. (1994). False Rape Allegations. Archives of Sexual Behavior.
• Sarah Projansky, Watching Rape: Film and Television in Postfeminist Culture, New York University Press 2001
• Thornhill, Randy and Palmer, Craig T. A Natural History of Rape: Biological Bases of Sexual Coercion. MIT Press, 2001.
• Roussel, D.E. and R. Bolen. (2000). The Epidemic of Rape and Child Sexual Abuse in the United States. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
• Mclean, D. (1995). Privacy and its invasion. CT: Praeger.
• Margulis, Stephen T., (2003). Privacy as a social issue and behavioral concept. Journal of social issues 59(2):243-261
• Pedersen, DM (1997) Psychological functions of privacy. Journal Of Environmental Psychology, 17:147-156

Child rape and child sexual assault

• Levesque, Roger, Sexual Abuse of Children, Indiana University Press, 1999.
• Pryor, Douglass, W. Unspeakable Acts: Why Men Sexually Abuse Children, New York University Press, 1996.

Female Sex Offenders

• Women's sexual aggression against men: prevalence and predictors
• Denov, Myriam S., Perspectives on Female Sex Offending: A Culture of Denial, Ashgate, 2004.
• Pearson, Patricia, When She Was Bad: Violent Women and the Myth of Innocence, Viking Adult, 1997.
• Adams, Ken, Silently Seduced: When Parents Make their Children Partners-Understanding Covert Incest, HCI, 1991.
• Anderson, Peter B., and Struckman-Johnson Cindy, Sexually Aggressive Women: Current Perspectives and Controversies, Guilford, 1998.
• Kierski, Werner , Female Violence: Can We Therapists Face Up to it?, Counseling and Psychotherapy Journal, 12/2002 (ISSN 1474-5372).
• Rosencrans, Bobbie, The Last Secret: Daughters Sexually Abused by Mothers, Safer Society, 1997.
• Miletski, Hani, Mother-Son Incest: The Unthinkable Broken Taboo, Safer Society, 1999.
• Elliot, Michelle, Female Sexual Abuse of Children, Guilford, 1994
• Hislop, Julia, Female Sex Offenders: What Therapists, Law Enforcement and Child Protective Services Need to Know, Issues Press, 2001.

Marital/Intimate Partner Rape

• Easteal, P, and McOrmond-Plummer, L, Real Rape, Real Pain: Help for Women Sexually Assaulted by Male Partners, Hybrid Publishers, 2006.
• Russell, Diana E.H., Rape in Marriage, MacMillan Publishing Company, 1990.
• Bergen, Raquel K., Wife Rape: Understanding the Response of Survivors and Service Providers, Sage Publications Inc., 1996.
• Finkelhor, D. and Yllo, K., License to Rape: Sexual Abuse of Wives, The Free Press, 1985.
• Hall, R., James, S. and Kertesz, J., The Rapist Who Pays the Rent Women Against Rape, UK.

Male Sexual Offenders

• Shapcott, David, The Face of the Rapist, Penguin Books, Auckland, 1988.
• Groth, Nicholas A., Men Who Rape: The Psychology of the offender, Plenum Press, New York, 1979.

Others

• Marta Hillers. A Woman in Berlin. Translated by Anthes Bell. ISBN.
• de Becker, Gavin (1998). The Gift of Fear: Survival Signals that Protect Us from Violence. New York: Dell. ISBN (recognizing and handling dangerous people and situations)
• Doe, Jane (2003). The Real Story of Jane Doe. Toronto: Random House.
• Ghiglieri, Michael P. (1999). The Dark Side of Man: Tracing the Origins of Violence. Reading, MA: Perseus Books, 1999. ISBN 073820076X.
• McElroy, Wendy (2001). Sexual Correctness: The Gender-Feminist Attack on Women. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. ISBN.
• Kipnes, Laura, The Female Thing: Dirt, Sex, Envy, Vulnerability. ISBN.
• Alice Sebold (1999). Lucky: A Memoir. New York: Scribner. ISBN. (author recounts her own rape at the age of 18)

External links Further research and information

• Abuse, Rape and Domestic Violence Aid and Resource Collection
• Rape Crisis Information Pathfinder Research
• WikiCrimeLine: Rape Law England and Wales

National organizations

• Men Can Stop Rape
• Rape, Abuse, Incest National Network (RAINN)
• Rape Victim Advocates
• Sexual Assault Care Centre Scarborough
• Speaking Out About Rape

Support resources

• After Silence, online support group, message board and chat room for survivors of rape, sexual abuse and molestation.
• Pandora's Aquarium An online support group, message board and chat room for rape and sexual abuse survivors and their supporters.
• Award Winning Documentary on Rape and Healing

Rape Crisis
This website aims to provide the basic information that survivors of sexual violence, friends and family need to access the services they need.

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